Associated Gas Flaring and Re-Injection Policymaking and Implementation in Nigeria (1960-2010)

ABSTRACT A number of oil-producing countries in the World (Norway, Britain, Venezuela, Canada, Brazil, etc) have successfully implemented regulatory policies and put in place gas reinjection technologies to curb gas flaring and venting in their offshore/onshore oil fields. Conversely, since 1969 Nigeria has been battling with same gas flaring and venting regulatory regimes without success. This study therefore examines the adequacy of consultancy and utilization of indigenous science and technology expert advice in the making and implementation of the Associated Gas Re-injection Policy in Nigeria. The study raised one major research question viz: Is the non-implementation of the Gas Re-injection Policy in Nigeria a function of lack of consultation of indigenous scientific and technological advice? The specific objectives of the study include: (i) to explore the need for indigenous scientific and technological advice in associated gas re-injection policy-making and implementation in Nigeria’s oil industry; (ii) to evaluate the extent of consultancy on indigenous scientific and technological expert advice in the Associated Gas Re-injection policy-making and implementation processes in Nigeria from 1960 to 2010; and (iii) to examine the structure/comparative cost of Gas Re-injection technology and the cost of gas flaring to the Niger Delta Region and Nigeria. The study seeks to fill the gap in existing literature on the relationship between science, technology and effective regulatory policymaking and implementation in Nigeria’s oil industry. Theoretically, it is to enhance current understanding of the implications of consulting indigenous scientific and technological expertise in gas re-injection policy-making and implementation. The theoretical framework of analysis is adopted from Ogban-Iyam’s perspective of the Marxian Theory of Social Production and Reproduction. The hypothesis, “the non-implementation of the Gas Reinjection policy in Nigeria is a function of lack of consultation of indigenous scientific and technological advice” was tested by logical presentation of evidence and attendant analysis.This study employs two major types of research designs, viz: (i) the Post-Test-Only Control Group Design was used to measure the independent variable; and (ii) the One-Shot Case Study Design was employed to measure the dependent variable. The logic of the two research designs was to control internal and external threats to validity. The Observation and Interview Methods were used for the collection of data from both primary and secondary sources. The personal interview method was used for the gathering of information from randomly selected respondents from regulatory agencies, petrobusinesses, and the oilbearing communities. The population of this study is the totality of the stakeholders and the physical environment of the Nigerian Oil Industry, viz: the federal government and all its oil/environment-related policies, laws and MDAs, governments of oil producing states and their oil/environment-related policies, laws and MDAs, Petrobusinesses and their personnel, oil prospecting technologies/activities, and oil-bearing communities, their environment and socioeconomic conditions. Two major samples for the study were drawn, viz: (i) a sample of federal and state ministries of environment of three Niger Delta States, viz: Delta, Bayelsa and Rivers, and Regulatory Agencies; (ii) a sample of 9 randomly selected respondents, 3 each from three selected oil-bearing communities, viz: Ojobo (Delta), Imiringi (Bayelsa) and Joinkrama IV (Rivers), using the purposive sampling technique to ensure effective representation of the stakeholder groups. Finally, the simple percentage method and tabular presentations were used to analyze both the secondary and primary data collected from the field. The study unearths holistically, not only the weak consultation/underutilization of indigenous scientific and technological expertise in associated gas re-injection policymaking/implementation, but also the existing low quality and quantity of perception, commitment, learning disposition, and political will (PCLW) of the actors involved in the dynamics of associated gas re-injection policy-making and implementation in Nigeria.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 PAGE

Cover Page …………………………………………………………………………..

Title Page …………………………………………………………………………… i

Approval Page ……………………………………………………………………... ii

Dedication ………………………………………………………………………….. iii

Acknowledgement …………………………………………………………………. iv

Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………...... vi

List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………. viii

List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………... x

List of Appendices …………………………………………………………………. xii

Acronyms and Abbreviations ……………………………………………………… xiii

Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………. xvii

Declaration ………………………………… ……………………………………… xix

CHAPTERS

ONE: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………… 1

1.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………. 1

1.2 Statement of Problem…………………………………………………………….. 8

1.3 Objectives of Study……………………………………………………………… 13

1.4 Significance of Study………………………………………….…………………. 14

1.5 Operational Definitions…………………………………………………………… 15

1.6 Literature Review …………………………………………………………………. 17

1.7 Theoretical Framework of Analysis ……………………………………………... 52

1.8 Hypothesis ……………………………………………………………………….. 62

1.9 Methodology …………………………………………………………………….. 63

TWO: PROBLEMS OF POLICY-MAKING AND IMPLEMENTATION

 IN NIGERIA …………………………………………………………………… 71

2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………… 71

2.2 Public Policy: Meaning, Process and Models……………………………………. 71

2.3 Structure of Policy-making in Nigeria …………………………………………... 91

2.4 Problems of Policy-making and Implementation in Nigeria ……………………. 100

2.5 The Role of Experts in Public Policy-making …………………………………... 105

2.6 Summary ………………………………………………………………………… 108

THREE: GAS RE-INJECTION TECHNOLOGY AND CHRONOLOGY OF GAS

 FLARING AND RE-INJECTION POLICIES IN NIGERIA AND THE

 NIGER DELTA CRISIS ………………………………………………… 110

3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 110

3.2 Gas Re-injection Technology ……………………………………………….. 110

3.3 Gas Flaring and Reinjection Measures in the Colonial Era (1958 – 1959) …. 116

3.4 Gas Flaring and Reinjection Policy-making after Independence (1960 – 2010)... 118

3.5 Gas Flaring and Niger Delta Crisis ……………………………………………... 126

3.6 Summary ………………………………………………………………………… 133

vii

FOUR: ASSOCIATED GAS REINJECTION POLICY-MAKING AND

 IMPLEMENTATION IN NIGERIA (1960-2010) …………………..... 135

4.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 135

4.1 Process of Associated Gas Reinjection Policy-making ……………………. 136

4.2 Actors in Associated Gas Reinjection Policy-making and Implementation … 140

4.3 Manpower Disposition of Federal/State Ministries of Environment in N/Delta 142

4.4 Patterns of Associated Gas Reinjection Policy Implementation in Nigeria … 148

4.5 Case Studies …………………………………..….……………………. ….. 177

4.6 Summary …………………………………………………………………… 191

FIVE: PATTERNS OF CONSULTANCY ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN

 ASSOCIATED GAS REINJECTION POLICY-MAKING AND

 IMPLEMENTATION IN NIGERIA ……………………………………… 194

5.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………. 194

5.1 Nature of Science and Technology Advisory System in Nigeria ……………… 194

5.2 Associated Gas re-injection Policy-makers’ Consultation/Utilization of Science

And Technology Advice …………………………………………………… 196

5.2.1 Consultative Efforts of Government …………………………………………… 197

5.3 Science and Technology and Gas Reinjection Policy Goals/Alternatives …… 233

5.4 Judiciary and Interpretation of Regulatory Policies/Legislations …………….. 236

5.5 Summary ……………………………………………………………………… 241

SIX: COMPARATIVE COST OF GAS REINJECTION TECHNONOLOGY

 AND THE COST OF GAS FLARING TO NIGERIA AND THE NIGER

 DELTA …………………………………………………………………… 243

6.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….. 243

6.2 Comparative Cost of Gas Reinjection Facility ……………………… 243

6.3 Cost of Gas Flaring to Nigeria and the Niger Delta Region ………… 244

6.4 Consequences of Gas Flaring on the Niger Delta Region …………… 247

6.4.1 Gas Flare-Induced Human Health Problems ………………………... 248

6.4.2 Gas Flare-Induced Vegetation Depletion Problems: Plant Diseases and Species Extinction... 256

6.4.3 Gas Flare-Induced Material Corrosion Problems …………………… 258

6.4.4 Multiplier effects on Socioeconomic Conditions of Oil-bearing Communities … 261

6.5 Case Studies of Gas Flaring Regulatory Regimes: Norwegian and British Models. 281

6.6 Summary ………………………………………………………………………… 300

SEVEN: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ………… 303

7.1 Summary ….…………………………………………………………………….. 303

7.2 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… 307

7.3 Recommendations ……………………………………………………………… 309

 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………….……………………… 313

APPENDIX……………………………………………………………… 332-412