THE ARCHITECTURE OF COMPUTER HARDWARE, SYSTEM SOFTWARE, AND NETWORKING AN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY APPROACH By Irv Englander

PART ONE

AN OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS 2

CHAPTER 1 Computers and Systems 4

1.0 Introduction 5

1.1 The Starting Point 9

1.2 Components of the Computer System 12

The Hardware Component 13

The Software Component 16

The Communication Component 18

The Computer System 18

1.3 The Concept of Virtualization 20

1.4 Protocols and Standards 20

1.5 Overview of This Book 22

1.6 A Brief Architectural History of the Computer 23

Early Work 24

Computer Hardware 25

Operating Systems 28

Communication, Networks, and the Internet 33

Summary and Review 34 For Further Reading 34

Key Concepts and Terms 35 Reading Review Questions 35

Exercises 36

CHAPTER 2 An Introduction to System Concepts and Systems Architecture 38

2.0 Introduction 39

2.1 The General Concept of Systems 40

2.2 IT System Architectures 48

Distributed Processing Systems 49

The Role of the System Architect 57

Google: A System Architecture Example 58

Summary and Review 62 For Further Reading 63

Key Concepts and Terms 63 Reading Review Questions 63

Exercises 64

PART TWO

DATA IN THE COMPUTER 66

CHAPTER 3 Number Systems 68

3.0 Introduction 69

3.1 Numbers as a Physical Representation 70

3.2 Counting in Different Bases 70

3.3 Performing Arithmetic in Different Number Bases 74

3.4 Numeric Conversion between Number Bases 77

An Alternative Conversion Method 79

3.5 Hexadecimal Numbers and Arithmetic 81

3.6 A Special Conversion Case—Number Bases that are Related 81

3.7 Fractions 83

Fractional Conversion Methods 86

3.8 Mixed Number Conversions 89

Summary and Review 89 For Further Reading 90

Key Concepts and Terms 90 Reading Review Questions 90

Exercises 91

CHAPTER 4 Data Formats 96

4.0 Introduction 97

4.1 General Considerations 97

4.2 Alphanumeric Character Data 100

Keyboard Input 106

Alternative Sources of Alphanumeric Input 107

4.3 Image Data 109

Bitmap Images 110

Object Images 114

Representing Characters as Images 117

Video Images 117

Image and Video Input 118

4.4 Audio Data 119

4.5 Data Compression 123

4.6 Page Description Languages 124

4.7 Internal Computer Data Format 125

Numerical Character to Integer Conversion 127

Summary and Review 128 For Further Reading 129

Key Concepts and Terms 130 Reading Review Questions 130

Exercises 131

CHAPTER 5 Representing Numerical Data 136

5.0 Introduction 137

5.1 Unsigned Binary and Binary-Coded Decimal Representations 138

5.2 Representations for Signed Integers 141

Sign-and-magnitude Representation 142

Nine’s Decimal and 1’s Binary Complementary Representations 143

Ten’s Complement and 2’s Complement 150

Overflow and Carry Conditions 153

Other Bases 153

Summary of Rules for Complementary Numbers 154

5.3 Real Numbers 155

A Review of Exponential Notation 155

Floating Point Format 157

Normalization and Formatting of Floating Point Numbers 159

A Programming Example 162

Floating Point Calculations 163

Floating Point in the Computer 165

Conversion between Base 10 and Base 2 167

5.4 Programming Considerations 168

Summary and Review 169 For Further Reading 170

Key Concepts and Terms 171 Reading Review Questions 171

Exercises 172

PART THREE

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND HARDWARE OPERATION 178

CHAPTER 6 The Little Man Computer 180

6.0 Introduction 181

6.1 Layout of the Little Man Computer 181

6.2 Operation of the LMC 183

6.3 A Simple Program 185

6.4 An Extended Instruction Set 186

6.5 The Instruction Cycle 189

6.6 A Note Regarding Computer Architectures 192

Summary and Review 192 Key Concepts and Terms 193

Reading Review Questions 193 Exercises 194

CHAPTER 7 The CPU and Memory 198

7.0 Introduction 199

7.1 The Components of the CPU 200

7.2 The Concept of Registers 201

7.3 The Memory Unit 204

The Operation of Memory 204

Memory Capacity 208

Primary Memory Characteristics and Implementation 209

7.4 The Fetch-Execute Instruction Cycle 211

7.5 Buses 214

Bus Characteristics 214

7.6 Classification of Instructions 218

Data Movement Instructions (LOAD, STORE, and Other Moves) 219

Arithmetic Instructions 221

Boolean Logic Instructions 222

Single Operand Manipulation Instructions 222

Bit Manipulation Instructions 222

Shift and Rotate Instructions 223

Program Control Instructions 224

Stack Instructions 225

Multiple Data Instructions 228

Other Instructions 229

7.7 Instruction Word Formats 229

7.8 Instruction Word Requirements and Constraints 230

Summary and Review 234 For Further Reading 234

Key Concepts and Terms 235 Reading Review Questions 235

Exercises 237

CHAPTER 8 CPU and Memory: Design, Enhancement,

and Implementation 240

8.0 Introduction 241

8.1 CPU Architectures 242

Overview 242

Traditional Modern Architectures 243

VLIW and EPIC Architectures 244

8.2 CPU Features and Enhancements 246

Introduction 246

Fetch-Execute Cycle Timing Issues 247

A Model for Improved CPU Performance 249

Scalar and Superscalar Processor Organization 253

8.3 Memory Enhancements 256

Wide Path Memory Access 257

Memory Interleaving 258

Cache Memory 259

8.4 The Compleat Modern Superscalar CPU 263

8.5 Multiprocessing 265

8.6 A Few Comments on Implementation 269

Summary and Review 269 For Further Reading 270

Key Concepts and Terms 271 Reading Review Questions 271

Exercises 272

CHAPTER 9 Input/Output 276

9.0 Introduction 277

9.1 Characteristics of Typical I/O Devices 278

9.2 Programmed I/O 284

9.3 Interrupts 285

Servicing Interrupts 286

The Uses of Interrupts 288

Multiple Interrupts and Prioritization 293

9.4 Direct Memory Access 297

9.5 I/O Modules 300

Summary and Review 302 For Further Reading 303

Key Concepts and Terms 303 Reading Review Questions 304

Exercises 304

CHAPTER 10 Computer Peripherals 306

10.0 Introduction 307

10.1 The Hierarchy of Storage 308

10.2 Solid State Memory 310

10.3 Magnetic Disks 311

Disk Arrays 317

10.4 Optical Disk Storage 318

10.5 Magnetic Tape 321

10.6 Displays 322

Liquid Crystal Display Technology 328

CRT Display Technology 329

OLED Display Technology 330

10.7 Printers 330

Laser Printers 331

Inkjet Printers 332

Thermal Wax Transfer and Dye Sublimation Printers 333

10.8 User Input Devices 333

Keyboards and Pointing Devices 333

Scanners 335

Multimedia Devices 335

10.9 Network Communication Devices 335

Summary and Review 336 For Further Reading 337

Key Concepts and Terms 337 Reading Review Questions 338

Exercises 339

CHAPTER 11 Modern Computer Systems 342

11.0 Introduction 343

11.1 Putting All the Pieces Together 345

11.2 Input/Output System Architectures 353

I/O Bus Architecture 354

Channel Architecture 357

Blurring the Line 358

11.3 Computer Interconnection: A Brief Overview 359

11.4 Clusters 360

Overview 360

Classification and Configuration 360

Beowulf Clusters 362

11.5 High-Performance Computing 363

Grid Computing 364

Summary and Review 364 For Further Reading 365

Key Concepts and Terms 365 Reading Review Questions 366

Exercises 366

PART FOUR

NETWORKS AND DATA COMMUNICATIONS 368

CHAPTER 12 Networks and Data Communications 370

12.0 Introduction 371

12.1 The Impact of Networking on Business Processes and User

Access to Knowledge and Services 372

12.2 A Simple View of Data Communications 373

12.3 Basic Data Communication Concepts 376

Messages 377

Packets 377

General Channel Characteristics 378

Packet Routing 382

12.4 TCP/IP, OSI, and Other Communication Models 386

Overview 386

The TCP/IP Network Model 387

The OSI Network Model 395

Addressing 396

12.5 Types of Networks 398

Network Topology 399

Local Area Networks 402

Backbone Networks 407

Metropolitan Area Networks 409

Wide Area Networks (WAN) 411

Internet Backbones and the Internet 412

Piconets 414

12.6 Standards 415

Summary and Review 416 For Further Reading 417

Key Concepts and Terms 417 Reading Review Questions 418

Exercises 419

CHAPTER13 Ethernet and TCP/IP Networking 422

13.0 Introduction 423

13.1 Introducing The Process—The Application Layer 423

13.2 Domain Names and DNS Services 424

Domain Name System Directory Services 424

13.3 Next Steps—TCP and the Transport Layer 429

13.4 The Network Layer, IP Addresses, and ARP 430

IP Addresses 431

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) 433

The Operation of IP 434

13.5 The Data Link Layer 435

Hub-Based Ethernet 436

Switched Ethernet 437

13.6 Quality of Service 437

13.7 Network Security 438

Physical and Logical Access Restriction 439

Encryption 440

13.8 Alternative Protocols 440

MPLS 440

ATM 441

SONET/SDH 441

Frame Relay 441

Summary and Review 442 For Further Reading 442

Key Concepts and Terms 443 Reading Review Questions 443

Exercises 443

CHAPTER 14 Communication Channel Technology 446

14.0 Introduction 447

14.1 Communication Channel Technology 447

14.2 The Fundamentals of Signaling Technology 450

Analog Signaling 451

Digital Signaling 460

Modems and Codecs 465

14.3 Transmission Media and Signaling Methods 466

14.4 Wireless Networking 468

Wi-Fi 469

Summary and Review 471 For Further Reading 471

Key Concepts and Terms 471 Reading Review Questions 472

Exercises 473

PART FIVE

THE SOFTWARE COMPONENT 476

CHAPTER 15 Operating Systems: An Overview 478

15.0 Introduction 479

15.1 The Barebones Computer System 480

15.2 The Operating Systems Concept: An Introduction 481

15.3 Services and Facilities 488

User Interface and Command Execution Services 489

File Management 490

Input/Output Services 491

Process Control Management 492

Memory Management 493

Scheduling and Dispatch 493

Secondary Storage Management 496

Network and Communications Support Services 496

Security and Protection Services 497

System Administration Support 498

15.4 Organization 502

15.5 Types of Computer Systems 505

Summary and Review 509 For Further Reading 510

Key Concepts and Terms 510 Reading Review Questions 510

Exercises 511

CHAPTER 16 The User View of Operating Systems 514

16.0 Introduction 515

16.1 Purpose of the User Interface 516

16.2 User Functions and Program Services 518

Program Execution 518

File Commands 519

Disk and Other I/O Device Commands 520

Security and Data Integrity Protection 521

Interuser Communication and Data Sharing Operations 521

System Status Information 522

Program Services 523

16.3 Types of User Interface 524

The Command Line Interface 525

Batch System Commands 527

Graphical User Interfaces 528

Trade-offs in the User Interface 533

Software Considerations 535

16.4 X Window and Other Graphics Display Methodologies 536

16.5 Command and Scripting Languages 539

The Elements of a Command Language 541

The Command Language Start-up Sequence Files 542

16.6 Services to Programs 542

Summary and Review 544 For Further Reading 544

Key Concepts and Terms 544 Reading Review Questions 545

Exercises 545

CHAPTER 17 File Management 548

17.0 Introduction 549

17.1 The Logical and Physical View of Files 549

17.2 The Role of the File Management System 554

17.3 Logical File Access Methods 560

Sequential File Access 560

Random Access 560

Indexed Access 561

17.4 Physical File Storage 562

Contiguous Storage Allocation 562

Noncontiguous Storage Allocation 564

Indexed Allocation 566

Free Space Management 568

Tape Allocation 569

CD, DVD, and Flash Drive Allocation 570

17.5 File Systems, Volumes, Disks, Partitions, and Storage Pools 570

17.6 The Directory Structure 573

Tree-Structured Directories 575

Acyclic-Graph Directories 577

17.7 Network File Access 581

17.8 Storage Area Networks 582

17.9 File Protection 584

17.10 Journaling File Systems 585

Summary and Review 586 For Further Reading 586

Key Concepts and Terms 587 Reading Review Questions 587

Exercises 588

CHAPTER 18 The Internal Operating System 592

18.0 Introduction 593

18.1 Fundamental OS Requirements 594

Example: A Simple Multitasking Operating System 596

18.2 Starting the Computer System: The Bootstrap 599

18.3 Processes and Threads 601

Process Creation 604

Process States 605

Threads 606

18.4 Basic Loading and Execution Operations 607

18.5 CPU Scheduling and Dispatching 608

High-Level Scheduler 608

Dispatching 610

Nonpreemptive Dispatch Algorithms 612

Preemptive Dispatch Algorithms 613

18.6 Memory Management 615

Memory Partitioning 615

18.7 Virtual Storage 617

Overview 617

Pages and Frames 618

The Concept of Virtual Storage 623

Page Faults 624

Working Sets and the Concept of Locality 626

Page Sharing 627

Page Replacement Algorithms 627

Thrashing 629

Page Table Implementation 630

Segmentation 632

Process Separation 633

18.8 Secondary Storage Scheduling 633

First-Come, First-Served Scheduling 633

Shortest Distance First Scheduling 634

Scan Scheduling 634

N-STEP C-SCAN Scheduling 635

18.9 Network Operating System Services 635

OS Protocol Support and Other Services 635

18.10 Other Operating System Issues 638

Deadlock 638

Other Issues 640

18.11 Virtual Machines 641

Summary and Review 643 For Further Reading 644

Key Concepts and Terms 644 Reading Review Questions 645

Exercises 647

Bibliography 653

Index 665